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  • Matter – Physical Science Unit


    States of Matter

    Know about the different states of matter? Matters of the heart, money matters and family matters. Well, not exactly! When you talk about states of matter, things actually take a turn towards Physics and Chemistry. And these pertain to matters like solid, liquid and gas.

    What is Matter?

    Before probing into the depths of matter and its state, it is worthwhile to form a concrete idea about what exactly constitutes matter. Matter is anything that has mass, weight and occupies a definite space. You are a matter and so is your dog. The table and the chairs around you, the water you are drinking and the air you are breathing are all matters. Everything in this world is a matter, the only difference is that they exist in different states.

    What are States of Matter?

    In Physics, a “state” is a particular phase of matter wherein they exhibit a similar set of features, physical characteristics and chemical compositions to be precise. You may not be always quite sure about the chemical properties, but similarities in physical structures (that is, what the thing looks like, in laymen terms) is apparent enough to convince you that water and beer are somewhat similar and that there’s absolutely nothing common in between that dresser and the fragrance of flowers pervading the air.

    There are three commonly recognizable states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. There are some other states of matter or phases that are less common, like plasmas and quark-gluon plasmas, Bose-Einstein and fermionic condensates, liquid crystals, superfluids and supersolids.

    Solids

    A solid matter has a definite shape and volume and a fixed mass. These particular features of a solid arise from the strong intermolecular force existing within it. Because the molecules in a solid form a close-knit group, it is not easy to disintegrate them, either by force or by varying the temperature slightly. You may argue that metals crumple and change shape when heated, but then these are extremely high temperatures that you are considering. You cannot squeeze in a solid into any nook and cranny.

    Liquids

    A liquid matter definitely has some mass but it doesn’t have any shape or a definite volume. This is because the molecules within a liquid are not that closely bound like that of solids and it is easier to split them up. And because it is relatively easy to break the bond between the liquid molecules, a liquid matter can take the shape of the container that it is poured in.

    However, in this context one thing needs to be mentioned. The intermolecular attraction in a liquid is not too flimsy either. And this gives the liquid matter its definite volume. For instance, you cannot fit in 1-litre of water in a half-litre container. This is something we are all familiar with and you don’t need to conduct an experiment with elaborate apparatus to ascertain it.

    Gases

    In its gaseous state, a matter neither has a definite shape nor a definite volume. This is because the molecules in a gas are very loosely tied, so that it is quite easy to pull them apart. This is why any gas will take on the form of the container it is being pumped into. And not only this, their versatile volume ensures that you can fit in a certain amount of gas in a variety of variously sized containers.

    Even a slight change in temperature can bring about massive alterations in the volume of a gas.

    Being well up on the fundamental states of matter is the stepping-stone to your understanding of the physical world.

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    Physical Science:
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  • Changes in Matter Science Lesson

    Different Forms Water Takes?



    Water can be a     solid,
     liquid or
    gas. When it is a solid it is ice or snow. When it is a gas it is water vapor, or steam.


    Changing the Temperature of Water
    Water comes in three different forms. It can be a solid (ice) a liquid (water) or a gas (water vapor or steam). To change the water from one form of matter to another you need to add or take away heat.

    When you investigated your ice cubes, what form of matter was the ice cube? What about after it melted? When you heated one on the stove, the water disappeared.
    What form had it turned into?

    Water changes form at different temperatures. It becomes a solid at 00C. It becomes a gas at
    100    0C.



    Adding Heat to Water
    If you add enough heat to water, it will turn into a gas. That gas is known as water vapor, or steam. Water vapor is difficult to see. The best way to see it is to boil a pot of water and shine a flashlight above it. The steam will make a shadow on the wall behind the stove.

    If you have water in its solid form (ice) and you add heat it will turn into a liquid. That change is easy to see.

    If you start with an ice cube and heat it, it will turn into water (liquid). If you keep heating it, it will turn into a gas (steam).


    Taking Heat Away from Water
    If you take heat away from water, it changes form. If you start with a liquid and remove heat, it will become a solid. That is what happens when you put an ice tray, full of water, into the
    refrigerator.

    If you start with a gas and remove heat, it becomes a liquid. That is what happens in the bathroom when you take a shower. Have you ever noticed that the mirror gets steamed up when you take a hot shower? That is because the hot water vapor meets the cold mirror. The heat is taken out of the vapor and it turns back to water.

    There are special words to describe what happens to water when it changes form. When water changes to a gas we say it
    evaporates. When water vapor changes to a liquid we say it
    condenses. When you boil the kettle, the water evaporates and turns into steam. When the steam meets a cold surface, such as a mirror, the windows, or ceramic tiles, it condenses and turns back into water.


    Water changes from solid to liquid to gas and back again. You can change it from one form to another by adding or taking away heat. These changes are
    reversible. If you can make a change, and then change it back to the way it was, the change is reversible.


    Lesson Review:


    What different forms can water take?


  • What makes water change its form?


  • How can you change a solid to a gas?


  • How can you change a gas to a solid?


  • What does reversible mean?


  • When a liquid evaporates, what does it turn into?


  • When a gas condenses, what does it turn into?

Changes in Matter Science Worksheet>>

Changes in Matter Experiment>>

<< Changes in Matter Investigation

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  • Animal Classification

    Classifying Animals


    When you classify an animal you place it in the group to
    which it belongs. All animals are divided into groups. The major groups are
    fairly simple. Each group is then divided into smaller groups, and divided
    again, until you eventually place the animal in its exact position in the
    classification of the Animal Kingdom.

    All of this may seem a bit complicated, and you are
    right, it is. For now, we are going to study seven groups, divided between
    animals with and without bones. We will only deal with insects
    and spiders in the group with no bones, and mammals,
    fish, birds, reptiles and amphibians     in the group with bones.

    What is an Animal?

    That might seem like an odd question, but if we are
    going to classify them, we really ought to decide if they belong in the animal
    group in the first place. Animals are living organisms. This means they breathe,
    they eat, they grow and they reproduce (make more like themselves). Plants are
    living organisms, too. So, what is the difference between a plant and an animal?
    The biggest difference is that most plants do not move, whereas most animals do.
    The true difference, though, is that plants produce their own food, whereas
    animals feed off other things.

    Bones or No Bones?

    Once you have decided you have an animal, you need to
    decide where to put it. The Animal Kingdom is divided up into groups. Every
    animal belongs in a special place, sort of like an address. The first two groups
    are the vertebrates and invertebrates. The invertebrates
    are animals with no bones. These include insects, spiders,
    and other groups for things like crabs, jellyfish, oysters, earthworms and more.
    The vertebrates, or animals with bones, can be
    divided into five main groups. These are mammals, birds,
    fish, reptiles and amphibians.



    Invertebrates
    (no bones)

    We are only going to look at two groups of
    invertebrates. Spiders and insects. Many people thing that spiders are
    insects, but they are wrong.

    • Insects have three main body parts and six legs.
    • Spiders have two main body parts and eight legs.

    Vertebrates
    (have bones)

    There are five main groups. These groups can be split
    further, into warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals. A warm-blooded animal is
    like you and me. It keeps its body temperature the same, unless it is sick. Cold
    blooded animals don’t keep their body temperatures the same, it changes
    according to the surroundings. So if the weather is hot, the animal is hot, and
    if the weather is cold, it is cold.

    Warm-blooded:
    Mammals:

    • Have hair or fur
    • Breathe air
    • Feed their young milk

    Whiskers are a type of hair, so just having whiskers counts as having hair or fur. 

    Birds:

    • Have wings and feathers
    • Breathe air
    • Lay eggs

    Cold-blooded:
    Fish:

    • Have scales, fins and tails
    • Breathe underwater (using gills)

    Reptiles:

    • Have dry skins and scales
    • Breathe air
    • Lay eggs

    Amphibians:

    • Have smooth wet or slimy skins
    • Spend part of their life in water and part on land

    Now print out the chart!




  • What Causes the Seasons


    As you have seen, the Earth is tilted and direct light
    causes more heat than indirect light. Remembering your walk around the chair,
    and how the tilt is at each point, can you work it out?

    This is how it works. When the Northern hemisphere is
    pointing at the sun, sunlight falls most directly on it. This is summer in the
    Northern Hemisphere. As you get around to the side of the chair, neither
    hemisphere is pointing toward the Sun. The light strikes both equally and
    directly. However, as the orbit is elliptical, the Earth is further from the Sun
    at this point so although the light is still direct, it is cooler, because of
    the distance.


    As the Earth moves around to the other side of the Sun
    the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun. Now the light falls
    indirectly on it. It is winter. As it moves around to the fourth side, it the
    light again falls directly on it, but it is further away, so it is warmer than
    winter but cooler than summer.

    Notice that the exact opposite is happening in the
    Southern hemisphere. When the Northern Hemisphere has summer, the Southern
    Hemisphere has winter, and the other way round. So, how do you decide which has
    spring and which has fall? That is simple. Spring follows winter and fall
    follows summer!

    Previous:

    Introduction

    Earth’s Tilt

    The effects of Direct and indirect Sunlight

    Earth’s Orbit


  • Birds of Prey


    Amongst the winged species of the animal kingdom, people are most ignorant about the birds of prey. In fact, it is surprising to note that there are quite a few in this world who don’t know hawks from eagles or that the owl is actually a nocturnal bird. Still many more don’t even know what actually a bird of prey is and would gleefully declare a robin to be one.

    What is a Bird of Prey?

    A bird of prey is also known as a “raptor”. The raptor is a bird that stalks its food primarily using its talon. It usually has a sharp and arched beak along with a keen vision. Remember, how the eagle spots and then swoops down from high above the skies on a tiny field mouse that has just peeped out from its burrow.

    Classifications Amongst Birds of Prey

    Birds of prey can be diurnal or nocturnal, that is those that hunt during the day and those that hunt at night. The diurnal birds of prey either belong to the order Accipitriformes or Falconiformes.

    There are sub-groups within these orders too. For instance, if you consider the Accipitriformes group, the following are the sub-classifications:

    1. Sagittariidae: The Secretary Bird belongs to this group.
    2. Accipitridae: Our familiar hawks, eagles and kites fall in this category. Some other birds of this group are buzzards and Old World vultures.
    3. Pandionidae: The Osprey is a prime example of a bird of prey belonging to the Pandionidae group.

    Amongst the other diurnal birds of prey, falcons are Falconidae, belonging to the order Falconiformes.

    The owl is a nocturnal bird of prey belonging to the Strigiformes order.

    It is obvious that there exists significant differences amongst the raptors of the various orders and genus, but delving into their individual characteristics, you will also notice striking similarities, apart from the fact that they are birds of prey.

    Some Interesting Facts About Birds of Prey

    1. The hawks have been proven to be amongst the most intelligent of all birds, as measured on the avian IQ scale that concentrates on their dietary habits and has been devised by the Canadian scientist Dr Louis Lefebvre. Care for a MENSA membership?
    2. The name of the genus that harriers belong to, that is “Circus”, is derived from the particular habit of these birds of circling the skies in search of prey.
    3. Not all owls are nocturnal. The Pygmy Owl hunts during the twilight hours, that is during the dawn and dusk hours, while there are also owls, namely the Burrowing Owl and the Short-eared Owl, that hunt during the day.
    4. The word “hawk” is also used loosely to mean any bird of prey.
    5. The word “eagle” usually meant the Golden Eagle in England before 1678.
    6. The huge pupil of the eagle is the reason behind its sharp eyesight. Large pupils cause minimum dispersal of the light that enter the eyes.
    7. Fossils of falcons dating back to 50-million years have been found in Germany.

    Birds of prey form an interesting aspect of study for the ornithologists and the laymen alike.

  • Animals and Adaptations


    In order for animals to survive, they need to be able to
    adapt. In this lesson we will look at the types of adaptations animals can and
    do make.

    In a perfect world, animals would not need to adapt.
    However, with constant changes to their environment, food chain and climate,
    animals must adapt or face extinction. There are many examples of animals facing
    extinction. Later on in the course we will take a look at some of these
    examples, and the reasons for their endangerment.

    Adaptation

    An adaptation is a trait that makes an animal suited to its
    environment. It can be a behavioral or a structural trait. Here a some examples:

    Moving in large groups is a behavioral adaptation;
    it helps protect the members of the group from predators.

    The thick fur coat of an arctic fox is a structural
    adaptation    . It helps protect it against the cold weather.

    Adaptation happens over a long period of time. Structural
    adaptation happens in the form of changing an animal’s genetic traits. Take
    for example this imaginary animal, the whatsit.




    The whatsit lives in woods. It s hunted by men and larger
    animals. Most whatsits are born with white fur, making them easy to spot amongst
    the trees. Some whatsits are born with brown, speckled fur. These are far more
    difficult to spot. Since they are easier targets for hunters, far more white
    whatsits are hunted and killed than speckled ones. Each time a speckled one
    mates with a white one, half the offspring are speckled. Eventually the amount
    of white furred ones available to breed is smaller than the number of speckled
    ones. More offspring are born with speckles than with white fur. This animal has
    adapted, and now the majority has speckled fur instead of white fur. Eventually
    the white furred ones will disappear altogether.

    There are many examples of this type of adaptation. Because
    it happens over generations, it is slow. In some cases, the inability of animals
    to adapt quickly enough have led to their distinction or endangerment.

    Behavioral adaptation can happen far more quickly. The more
    intelligent an animal is the faster it can learn to make behavioral changes, in
    order to survive.

    If you take the most intelligent of animals, you can
    understand what happens. Humans adapt in many ways in order to survive. Here is
    an imaginary example of human adaptation:

    A group of people lives in village Somewhere. In the
    village a large number of children die each year, after being attacked by wild
    animals. The villagers can make changes to their environment and behavior in
    order to protect the children. They can build fences around the village. They
    can make traps to catch the animals. They can ensure that the children only go
    out in groups, protected by armed adults.

    All of these are behavioral changes, and can happen almost
    overnight. The speed with which they happen depends on the intelligence of the
    animals and their ability to work as a community.

    The Best Adaptations

    Adaptation can work in two ways. The best example of this
    is camouflage. A chameleon can change its color according to its surroundings.
    Think about how this helps protect it. Not only does it help protect the
    chameleon, it also helps it survive in another way. Because it blends in so well
    with its surroundings, insects are less likely to see or notice it. By blending
    in it also makes it a better hunter, it can hunt without being seen, In fact, it
    is such an efficient adaptation that hunting is probably the wrong word o use.
    It just blends in and patiently sits waiting for some unsuspecting insect to
    happen along. Then, flick, out goes the tongue and there is one less insect and
    one less hungry chameleon. The more ways a single adaptation helps an animal to
    survive, the better it is.

    Going back to the arctic fox and its fur coat. How can that
    coat help the fox in more than one way? The answer lies in the color of the
    coat. Obviously in a landscape covered in snow, a thick, white coat is very
    useful. This adaptation works in three ways. It protects the fox from the cold
    ad provides camouflage. The camouflage allows it to hunt more efficiently and
    hide from would-be predators.

    Related Articles:
    Classification of Animals
    Penguins
    Turtles




  • Changes in Matter Investigation


    How Can Water Change?

    Investigate:

    You will need:

    1. Four ice cubes
    2. Three plastic plates or bowls
    3. A pot
    4. Paper and pencil to record your results

    Method:

    • Put one ice cube in each plate or bowl.
    • Put them in different places around the room.
    • Put one in the sun by a window, or under a desk lamp.
    • Put one on the table beside you, not in the sunlight or under lamp.
    • Put one in the refrigerator.
    • Put the last ice cube in the pot.
    • Ask an adult to heat it on the stove.
    • Keep boiling it until the pan is almost dry.
    • Keep checking on the other ice cubes.
    • Observe which one melts the fastest.
    • Observe which one melts the slowest.
    • Record your results in a chart.

    Think About It:

    Which ice cube on a plate melted fastest? Why?
    Which melted the slowest. Why?
    Where did the ice cube in the pot go?

    Changes in Matter…continued >>

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    Lessons

  • Solar System and Weather Earth Science Unit


    Earth Science Articles deal with various subjects relating to the planet we live on. Also termed as Geoscience, the subject is a unique case in planetary science due to its exclusive life form. The subject also often involves physics, geology, mathematics, chemistry and biology for a comprehensive knowledge of the Earth’s functioning.

    The various branches that must be involved in Earth Science Articles are:

    1. Geology that explores the Earth’s surface (or lithosphere) and its evolution. It includes mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, engineering geology and sedimentology.
    2. Geodesy and Geophysics explores the Earth form, its dealing with various forces and the Earth’s fields (magnetic and gravitational).
    3. Soil science studies the outmost stratum of the Earth’s crust and its soil formation procedures (or pedosphere). The subject includes edaphology and pedology.
    4. Oceanography and Hydrology (including Limnology) investigates the marine and freshwater life of our planet (or hydrosphere). It includes hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and biological oceanography. Within the scientific union IUGG the branches of learning are combined with Geophysics, besides the chemical ones.
    5. Glaciology studies the ice lands (or cryosphere)
    6. Atmospheric sciences deal with the gaseous covering of the Earth (or atmosphere) and include Meteorology, Climatology and Aeronomy.

    However, since all the fields are related to one another, complete Earth Science Articles must have an interdisciplinary approach. For instance, to understand the patterns of waves of the sea, the interrelation between the water world, atmosphere and Earth’s rotation must be taken into account.

    Article plan

    1. Review sites featured in various Earth Science videos and describe their significance.
    2. Before writing Earth Science Articles, make the students create postcards and jot down observation from the video on it with color pencils and markers. Instruct the students to add images and illustrations on one side of the postcard while making the notes on the other.
    3. Use print and online resources for the study of subject they will write on.
    4. Make students compare notes in groups.
    5. Follow with a lesson and then a discussion on the correlation between humans and the Earth’s water bodies.
    6. Round up the session with an assessment of the postcards.
    7. Now, let them start writing articles out of the ideas in the postcards.

    This fun activity before writing Earth Science Articles will surely enrich the results.

  • Changes in Matter Experiment


    How Much Water Does an
    Apple Contain?

    Try this experiment to see how much liquid an apple contains.

    You will need:

    1. Half an apple, with the core removed
    2. A balance
    3. A shallow pan
    4. Kitchen paper


    Method:

    • Weigh the apple.
    • Record the weight.
    • Carefully cut the apple into thin slices (it needs a sharp knife, so an adult should do this bit)
    • Weigh the slices together.
    • Place some kitchen paper on the bottom of the pan and put your apple slices onto it.
    • Place the pan in the sun in a window.
    • Do not place it outside or the apple will get eaten by birds and insects!
    • Check the slices every day.
    • When they become hard and dry weigh them again.
    • Subtract the weight when they are dry from the weight when they were fresh.
    • That is how much water your apple contained!

    Changes in Matter Science Worksheet>>

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