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  • Native Americans


    An Overview

     

    Native
    Americans, wrongly known as Indians, were the original inhabitants of
    the Americas. Anthropologists agree that they are descended from people
    who traveled to America from Asia. They originally formed small
    wandering groups, hunting for food and living off the land. Later they
    formed larger groups. The type of food they hunted and the ability to
    store food for coming years is thought to be one of the main reasons for
    the cultural differences between the groups.

    The first people to live in North America are called Native
    Americans. When Christopher Columbus first landed in the Americas, he
    thought he had landed in India, and so he called the people Indians.
    The name is totally wrong, but it stuck. Later still, a Swedish man decided that
    the Natives should be given a proper name, and so he called them Americans
    or the Red Race. This didn’t help much, as people then
    started calling them Red Indians or American
    Indians    . Only recently have they been given their proper title, that of
    Native Americans.

    Although all Anthropologists agree that people from Asia were the original
    inhabitants, they cannot agree on when the migration happened. These original
    descendants of Native Americans crossed from what is now Siberia into Alaska
    sometime between 40,000 and 20,000 years ago.

    Gathering Food

    At first they lived in small groups. They were nomadic hunter-gatherers. This
    means that they moved around in search of food, hunting wild animals and
    gathering wild plants to survive. This type of living can only support small
    groups. People living like this build small shelters, from animal skins and
    poles that can be moved easily. They may also build using poles, branches and
    grass, and just abandon their homes when they move on. They tended to move
    southwards, in search of food, as food was more plentiful in warmer climates.

    Growing Food

    As some groups moved further south, they found that they were able to grow
    their own crops. These groups were agrarian, meaning they planted and harvested
    their own crops. The ability to grow crops meant that there was enough food to
    support a larger group. The groups became larger and more permanent. Homes
    became more elaborate, and less movable, and small villages started appearing.
    At this stage, they were still unable to store much food. This meant that in
    years when they had a bad harvest, they didn’t have enough to eat. Two or more
    years of bad harvests following each other meant they had to move again, or face
    starvation.

    As the groups became larger, and moved further south, they learned valuable
    lessons on the way. Not everyone moved south. Those who stayed remained in
    fairly small groups, or tribes, and were able to support themselves with the
    farming and hunting methods they already used. Most of the tribes who remained
    in North America had less than 1000 people in each group. The size of the group
    depended on the availability of food. In some areas, where food was plentiful,
    the groups were much larger.

    Storing Food

    As the groups neared Central America, they learned how to irrigate crops.
    They found ways to bring water to their fields. This meant that they could grow
    more crops, and even store food for years when the harvest didn’t supply enough
    food. They also learned how to terrace and fertilize, growing much more food
    over a small area. These groups were able to support a much larger number of
    people. They built permanent homes, and eventually very elaborate civilizations
    grew up, with towns and cities.

    The Native Americans from these areas are known as the Nuclear Americans.
    They lived in the southern part of North America, Mexico and Central America.
    From these groups the Aztec, Mayan and Inca civilizations grew.

    It seems that the groups that continued on to South America did not take with
    them the agricultural knowledge of the Nuclear Americans. Or perhaps they chose
    not to use it, or it was unsuitable to the areas they lived in. It is also
    thought that a second migration of Asians, this time from South East Asia, may
    have reached South America 6,000 years ago. The groups in South America were
    again small groups of hunter-gatherers. They tended to settle in one area, but
    remained in small groups who did not need to move in search of food. Their
    groups were small enough, and food plentiful enough, that they were able to stay
    in the same region. They built permanent but very simple homes.

    Small groups were formed of immediate family members, usually ruled by the
    oldest male. Larger groups or tribes were also built around family, but a much
    wider family. These groups usually had one branch of the family that ruled, the
    rule being passed down to the next generation of the same branch. The much
    larger civilizations of the Nuclear Americans had complex societies with levels
    and classes.

  • Algebra II Worksheets


    The Algebra II worksheets deal with algebraic problems that are taught at the secondary level. The problems are complex and demand lots of practice, before a student can really become proficient in Algebra.

    The Algebra II worksheets are ideal for teaching new concepts and speeding up the learning process. With the concepts/solutions of the Algebra I worksheets already well set in their memory, these new concepts better prepare the students for the college Algebra courses.

    The Topics In Algebra II Worksheets

    The Algebra II worksheets are based on various topics that incorporate Graphs and Functions, Powers and Roots, Coordinate Geometry, Quadratic Equations, Equations and Inequalities, Fractional Expressions, Trigonometry, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions, Quadratic Functions, Matrices, Trigonometric Identities, Polynomials and Factoring, Systems of Equations and Inequalities and Probability.

    Before solving these worksheets, it is very essential to consult Algebra books to form an idea of what Algebra is all about. Instead of sticking to one particular book, it is advisable to choose a variety of books, because different books explain different concepts better than the others do.

    Remember that, ‘Practice Makes Prefect’. Hence, let your child practice the sums repeatedly in the worksheets. Being the guardian or the teacher, you know the areas your ward lags in and can accordingly customize the Algebra worksheets to enable them practice those sums.

    Everything from basic equations to trigonometric ratios is incorporated in these worksheets. This helps the students to brush up their basic learning in Algebra and at the same time solve the new and difficult sums they are learning. You too can come up with exercises based on Algebra II worksheets – this will give them good practice as well as test the student’s proficiency in the sums. Therefore, the whole process aims at teaching and honing their Algebraic skills.

    The crucial benefits of learning Algebra from these worksheets are that, the students can pick up the subject at their own pace, grab the personalized attention of their instructor and in the process consolidate their foundation in the subject. The pictorial presentations of the equations in the worksheets are the artful way of teaching the complexities of any problem with more ease. Hence, the Algebra II worksheets are the ideal way of developing a fondness for the subject in a child.

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  • American Revolution


    American revolution is a historical landmark, which has witnessed several political, social and economical upheavals. Humans generally revolt for drastic transformation and this revolution of the Americans is no exception. The American revolution sparked off in the first half of the 18th century and thus a nation was created. Yes, it was the United States of America, which staged itself putting an end to the British Rule of the thirteen colonies. However, a greater part of the revolution owes to the French Government for essential naval and military support.

    History says that this revolution involved new republican ideas and a gradual expansion of democracy. Such introductions caused a commotion in the conventional social chain of command. From here, the ethics of American political values took shape to form a greater part of the American society. 

    Causes of the revolution  

    The revolution originated in the year 1763 when France was defeated in the hands of the British in the French and Indian war. Thus, the colonies from France no longer had to suffer from prolonged military threats. The taxes imposed by the British Government were considered illegal by most of the colonists after their protest in Boston. The British sent troops to fight with the trained American militiamen in the year 1775. It was the year 1776 when the agitation reached its climax with the signing of the Declaration of Independence. History says that the revolution ended with the treaty of Paris in 1783 when the United States came to be recognized as an independent nation.

    In the year, 1763 Great Britain tightened its grip on the continent of North America. Apart from the thirteen colonies, sixteen other small colonies came under the direct rule of the royal governors. Now the British government decided to levy tax on its North American possessions. This, the government did without consulting the colonies. This offended the Americans and thus their grievances were set on fire.

    In the year 1764 the British Parliament introduced the Sugar and the Currency Act thus further kindling the fire of hatred in the hearts of the million colonists. The Americans started protesting by refusing to make use of British goods. Their only slogan was “no taxation without representation”. The Americans were of the opinion that only the colonial assemblies and not the British Parliament can impose taxes upon them.
     
    The patriot groups of America too had a great role to play in this revolution. They burnt a British warship as a protest against unfair trade regulations. In 1772, patriots of the thirteen colonies were invited for forming a rebel government to teach the British a lesson in its righteous sense.

    Finally, with the Boston Tea Party the fuel was added to the fire. In 1773, the British Parliament introduced a “Tea Act” which enabled the British East India Company sell tea without colonial tax. This led to an undercutting of the prices of the colonial merchants. This time the Americans were terribly dissatisfied due to a monopoly again without consultation. It was 16 December 1773 when the American patriots (Sons of Liberty) dressed as Indians dumped the entire tea into the Boston harbor. To bring the situation under control the British sent soldiers to Boston, which led to further commotion.  

    Events followed one after the other with absolute participation from loyalists, patriots and efficient soldiers. This led to wars between America and Britain deteriorating the international political scene to a great extent. Finally, the United States was formed putting an end to American Revolution – peace prevailed after long years of trouble and turmoil.


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  • Native North Americans – The Major Groups

    Most
    Anthropologists group Native North Americans into eight major groups.
    These groups are according to the type of lifestyle the natives had.
    Lifestyle depended largely on the type and amount of food available, and
    how easily people could move around. The size of individual groups
    within each area was limited by the amount of food available and the
    ability to store food.

    Sub arctic Hunters and Fishers
    This group includes all of Canada, except the Northwest coast and
    Arctic region, and extends south to the Great Plains. It only extended a
    little way into the present day United States. This is a very wet region
    in summer, and covered in snow in winter. Natives had to use canoes,
    toboggans and snowshoes to move around. Life was very difficult. Food
    was plentiful, with protein being the biggest part of the diet. Large
    herds of caribou migrated through the area every year. Fish, bear, moose
    and deer were also good sources of food.
    Because they hunted for food and transportation and movement was
    limited, they lived in small family groups. They had easily portable
    homes, usually made from the bark of trees.
    Northwest Coast Fishermen
    From the Northwest coast of Canada stretching down to northern
    California, a thin strip of coastal land formed a good area for Native
    Americans to settle. Here they could fish in the sea or the plentiful
    rivers. The rivers were full of salmon and provided plentiful food. The
    sea provided fish, mammals including sea lions and whales, and shellfish
    such as oysters and clams. The land provided plentiful food as well,
    with deer, moose, caribou, mountain goats and other small animals as
    well as berries and roots. The diet of this group was far more varied
    and healthy than that of the sub arctic group.
    Villages here were larger, usually having over 100 members. Although
    they were usually related, they were much more loosely related. One
    family was the head family, and how closely related you were to them
    decided how important you were.
    Interior Plateau Foragers
    This group lived in a wooded area with streams. They were able to fish
    for salmon, hunt for small game and collect fruit and berries. They
    lived in small family groups and were very peaceful and friendly towards
    each other.
    Great Basin Desert Foragers
    This group of people, like the sub arctic hunters, didn’t have a very
    friendly environment to live in. The differences in temperature between
    summer and winter made living difficult. The climate meant that few
    things grew, and few animals lived there. Food was mainly berries,
    cactus fruits, pine nuts, seeds and roots. For protein they ate lizards,
    snakes and insects. Occasionally they would catch a moose or deer, and
    have a great feast. In winter there was very little food, and if they
    had not stored food in the summer, they faced starvation.
    They lived in small family units, moving around in search of food. In
    bad years when food was scarce they joined with other related groups to
    help support each other.
    California Foragers
    This group covered much the same area as present day California. They
    survived mainly on plant food including grasses and acorns. Along the
    coast they supplemented their food with fish and seafood, and in the
    interior with animals such as deer and rabbits.
    They lived in villages of about 100 people, not always related.
    Because the villages contained people who were unrelated there was a
    form of society with relationships between villages.
    Plains Prairie Bison Hunters
    This is the Native American group that most easily comes to mind when
    people talk about “Red Indians”. The plains are a huge area
    extending from the Rocky Mountains in the east to the Mississippi River
    in the west, and from the Canadian border to the Gulf of Mexico. It
    formed the largest region, and was based on hunting of bison. The groups
    were small groups who foraged for food and hunted the bison.
    Once horses had been introduced to North America, more and more of the
    neighboring groups moved in, hunting the bison. The groups moved,
    following the bison. They were large groups and the head of the group
    fought for the position. In order to be accepted into a group and to
    have honor they fought and became very aggressive. They formed raiding
    parties and fought neighboring groups, to prove that they were
    “worthy” warriors. The warriors also served as a form of
    security police within the larger settlements. These were the natives
    who are portrayed in films as the aggressors. Generally, though, the
    Native Americans were peaceful.
    Eastern Woodlands Cultivators
    This area was to the west of the Great Plains area. It extended to the
    Atlantic Ocean, and from Southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. The area
    had woodlands which provided plenty of wild food, both plant and animal.
    All of the groups here used cultivation of crops to some degree. In the
    northern most part, the growing season was short, so they depended
    heavily on wild crops and fish from the Great Lakes and rivers. In the
    Eastern coastal region crops didn’t grow very well, so they also
    depended heavily on wild crops and fish. The rest of the region depended
    mostly on cultivated crops.
    Because of the degree of cultivation, and the ability to store food,
    some of the groups in this area were very large, with a society and
    classes developing. In the coastal area and northern part, groups tended
    to be smaller and more family based.
    Southwest Cultivators and Foragers
    This area covers present-day Arizona, New Mexico and parts of Mexico.
    The climate was very hot and dry (arid). Despite the climate food was
    plentiful. They lived off wild plants and animals. In addition they used
    irrigation methods to grow crops. The main crop was maize. Because they
    used irrigation and cultivation methods they were able to store food for
    years when wild food was hard to find.
    They lived in villages, usually related to one another. Unlike most of
    the other groups, they counted family as being on the mother’s side.
    This is called matrilineage. Most of the other groups counted it on the
    father’s side, known as patrilineage. Not all the villages were
    matrilineal, some were patrilineal, but all were related in some way.

    These groups of Native Americans stayed pretty much along the same lines
    until the European settlers arrived. With them they brought disease, guns,
    horses and a desire for land. The result of European settlement was to destroy
    the Native way of life.

     

     

  • Native North Americans – The Effects of Colonization

     

    European
    colonization of North America had a devastating effect on the native
    population. Within a short period of time their way of life was changed
    forever. The changes were caused by a number of factors, including loss
    of land, disease, enforced laws which violated their culture and much
    more.

    When the Europeans arrived they brought with them diseases unknown to the
    natives. The natives, having no immunity died from diseases that the Europeans
    thought of as commonplace. They also brought guns, alcohol and horses. The
    effect of these was to change the way of life for the Native Americans. Horses
    and guns changed their way of hunting for food. Since the cultural groups had
    been based on their method of subsistence, changing this changed the groupings.
    Some major groups moved. Once they started to move fights over territory broke
    out. Groups who had had plenty of food, now didn’t have enough.

    Missions were introduced, and Natives were aggressively encouraged to convert
    to Christianity. Most of the groups had had some form of ancestral worship, and
    this enforced change in religion altered their culture identity. On top of all
    of these factors was the Europeans need for land and food. Native groups,
    because they were nomadic, didn’t see land as belonging to one person. The idea
    that someone could come in, claim a piece of land and ban them from it caused
    many problems. Wars broke out over the fact that they could no longer hunt or
    forage for food in places they had always done so.

    Learn about Foraging

    Some of the effects that colonization had were unintentional. No one thought
    much about immunity to diseases, or that they would kill off the entire bison
    population. These effects were a side effect of the Europeans greed and attitude
    that they could take anything they saw. Later however, things changed, and a
    determined effort was made to completely suppress the Native culture. This
    active suppression took many forms. Certain tribes were freely supplied with
    guns, so that they could wipe out their neighbors. Old problems between tribes
    were brought back into the open, causing wars. The army and many settlers
    treated the Natives as nothing more than pests to be got rid of. Laws were
    introduced that banned certain ceremonies, forced the children into the European
    education system, and tied whole groups to land that was useless and could not
    sustain them. The intention was to deny them of their cultural identity, which
    has the same effect as wiping them out.

    Here is a very brief look at the effects colonization had on the different
    groups.

    Sub arctic Hunters and Fishers
    Initially the introduction of Europeans and guns affected the eastern
    sub arctic region the most. Europeans hunted for furs, using guns, and
    decimated the local wildlife. Often they just skinned the animals and
    left the meat to rot. This caused a shortage of food and fur for the
    natives in the area. The introduction of guns also caused some groups to
    become more powerful and more aggressive. The Cree, one of the largest
    groups in the area, moved south into the Great Plains using guns to hunt
    bison. The change in their way of life caused them to lose much of their
    cultural heritage.
    Although the rest of the area was untouched in the beginning, western
    influence has gradually destroyed the native culture.
    Northwest Coast Fishermen
    Many European ships visited the Northwest coast, beginning in 1741.
    Diseases, guns and alcohol caused many troubles. Land was not a major
    problem initially. Although the culture was failing, many of the people
    remained on the land or close to it. The Native Americans still living
    in the area are fighting hard to restore their culture.
    Interior Plateau Foragers
    Here fights over land led to bloody battles with huge loss of life
    among the Native Americans. The introduction of horses also caused major
    groups to move into the Plains area, to hunt for bison. Between them,
    battles, horses and disease almost wiped out this group entirely by as
    early as 1860.
    Great Basin Desert Foragers
    Basin Foragers had a very hard time surviving, even before the
    Europeans arrived. Horses caused many of them to leave for the Plains,
    in search of a better way of life. The remaining groups were easily over
    run by the European settlers, and their land taken from them.
    California Foragers
    Europeans first came to this area in 1542, and missions were
    established soon after. However, the Native population remained fairly
    intact until the Gold Rush of 1849. During this time the Native
    Americans had their land taken from them by force, and thousands were
    needlessly massacred. Although there are still groups present in the
    area today, much of their cultural identity has been lost.
    Plains Prairie Bison Hunters
    The introduction of guns and horses initially caused an increase in
    the Native groups and a strengthening of their cultural bonds. However
    the sheer number of hunters, added to by Europeans hunting for fur,
    wiped out the bison herds. Once the herds were gone the culture was
    destroyed. Some groups continued to fight for the land, against the
    Europeans, even after the bison were gone. The final battle against the
    Native Americans was at Wounded Knee. Here a group of Sioux ran into a
    cavalry unit. 300 Natives, mostly women and children, were massacred.
    The fight was over. However, some groups did stay in the area on
    reservations, and they still maintain some of their culture, although in
    a very different form.
    Eastern Woodlands Cultivators
    Not much is known about the effects of colonization n this group.
    They were destroyed so quickly, that no one bothered to write down how
    it happened. Any group that survived was forced, by the US Government,
    to move to the Indian Territories in the 19th century.
    Southwest Cultivators and Foragers
    Although the Apaches and Hopi managed to keep the Mexicans out, they
    were no match for the US army. From 1840 to 1886, the Natives and US
    Army fought running battles. Geronimo, the Apache chief was the last to
    surrender in 1886. Today the Navajo (part of the Apache nation) and the
    Hopi still live in the area, and have the best preserved culture of all
    the Native American groups.

    It took Europeans, disease, guns and horses less than 300 years to destroy a
    way of life that had been going on for at least 20,000 years. Although many
    Native American groups are trying to regain their cultural identity, it will
    never be the same.

  • Location or Place?

    Sometimes people become confused between location and place. What is a location and what is a place, and why are they not the same? Well in everyday language they probably are the same, but in geographical terms they are very different. Location tells you where something is, place tells you what it is like.

    Location


    This is divided into 2 parts:


    Specific locationSpecific location

    General Location


    Specific location is shown by an address. The address can be any type of address that gives an exact position. It is sometimes called absolute location
    Here are some examples:
    A Street Address:
    1, Silly Street, Anywhere Town, Nowhere Place
    A Map Address:
    15o20′ North, 20o15′ West

    Both of these examples well tell you exactly where a place is.

    General location is shown by saying where something is in relation to somewhere or something else. It is also known as relative location.
    Here are some examples:
    ten minutes away by train
    in front of the bank

    With these two examples you can only find what you want if you know from where you are starting. It’s useful, though, for describing things. If I just told you that New York was located at 40o North, 73o West, you probably couldn’t picture that in your head. If I told you that it was in the North-Eastern United States, you could probably imagine it much better.

    Place

    The place is a description of what the place is like, rather than where it is (location). It is a description of what makes that place different to others. If I was trying to tell you about the bedrooms in a house, and I wanted to explain to you exactly which one I meant, I could say, “the one with two beds and one window”. If the other rooms had only one bed each, or two windows, then you could easily tell which room I meant.

    This is divided into 2 parts:


    Physical DifferencesPhysical Differences

    Human Differences

    Physical differences, or characteristics, include things that occur naturally, such as mountains, rivers, type of soil, wildlife, climate etc.

    I might say that a place is flat with rich soil and many rivers. I’m still being vague, but already you can see a picture of it in your head, and maybe even begin to imagine what the land is used for.

    Human differences, or characteristics, are things that have changed due to people, such as roads and buildings, how people live and their traditions.

    This is where you can really go to town in your description. You can discuss the cities, lifestyle, culture and all sorts of other interesting facts that make the place you are talking about different and special.

     

    For a description of each of the five themes, visit these links:

    Describing Places: The Five Themes of Geography on this site.

    Five Times Five
    The Five Themes of Geography
    The Five Themes of Geography

  • How Mummies Were Made

    First the body was cleaned with a wine solution and spices. This was to kill
    as many bacteria as possible and stop the body from decaying. Then all the
    organs that could decay were removed. The brain was the organ that was removed
    first, using a long hook through the nose. The Egyptians didn’t think the brain
    was important, so it was destroyed during the mummification process.

    Next they took out the internal organs, lungs, stomach, liver, and intestines
    by making deep cuts in the abdomen.

    Then the body was stuffed with natron. Natron was a type of salt found by
    wells. It is similar to ordinary salt mixed with bicarbonate of soda. The body
    was covered in natron, also. After it was covered it was placed on a slanted
    embalming table, so that any fluids could drip out of the body.

    They also dried the internal organs with natron, while the body was drying.

    After the organs were dried out they were place in special jars called
    canopic jars.

    The stoppers of canopic jars were shaped like the heads of the four sons of
    the god Horus. Each son protected the organ placed inside his jar. 

    • Duamutef,
      who had the head of a jackal, guarded the jar that contained the stomach. 
    • Qebehsenuf,
      who had the head of a falcon, watched over the intestines. 
    • Hapi, the
      baboon-headed son of Horus, protected the lungs, while human-headed 
    • Imseti
      was in charge of protecting the liver. Canopic jars were usually stored in a
      chest that was later placed in the tomb with the mummy.

    After the body was fully dried and cleaned, it was decorated with jewelry.
    Then it was covered in linen shrouds (cloths) and wrapped with linen strips.

    Small magical amulets were inserted between the layers of the bandages to
    further protect the mummy’s spirit on its way to the afterlife. As each layer
    was added, it was coated with resin to hold the wrappings together with a
    waterproof seal.

     

    Assignments

    Make a canopic jar ~

    Mummify some fruit ~

    Make a life-sized mummy case

    Explain the steps used to mummify a body. Write it like a set of
    instructions. Use imperative sentences.

     

  • Short Vowel Sounds

    The five most important sounds to know are the short
    vowel sounds. If you recognize them when you hear them, they give you a lot of
    clues as to how to spell words.

    The vowels are a, e, i, o and u.

    A as in apple

    E as in egg

    I as in insect


    O as in orange

    U as in umbrella

    Here is a little rhyme to help you remember them:

    A, a, a, a – apple,
    E, e, e, e – egg,
    I, i, i, i – insect,
    The short vowels we do say,
    O, o, o, o – orange,
    And u, u – umbrella, too.
    Now I know my short vowel sounds,
    I’ll say them all for
    you.

    Next, you need to practice saying each of the consonants
    with the each vowel after it. Remember that these are sounds and not words, so
    even if it spells a word, say the vowel with the short sound.

    Like this:

    Ba, be, bi, bo, bu

    Ta, te, ti, to, tu

    Fa, fe, fi, fo, fu

    With the consonants c and g, only use a o and u. Don’t
    use e and i, as they change the sound of the consonant.

     Write all the
    combinations out on cards. Pick a card and say the sound. Are you sure you know
    them all? Once you know them the next step is to add a letter after the sound.

    Example: ba

    Add a t, what does it say? Add a g, what does it say. Try
    with other letters. See how many real words you can make.

    Once you can do this you can spell all sorts of words.
    Just say the word slowly and write every sound that you hear, in the order you
    hear them.

    Example: bag. Say b-a-g, and then write the sounds you
    hear. You can even write some longer words, like desk and stop. In fact, you can
    write most words that only have a short vowel sound.

    Once you know your short vowel sounds really well, there
    are all sorts of neat spelling tricks you can learn. 

    When you are ready, check
    out lesson 2 to discover some secrets!


  • Spelling List Week 3


    Spelling
    List – Grade 1 – Week 3

    me
    get
    I
    up
    this

    Week 3
    Worksheets

    There is
    an activity for each day of the week.

    Click on
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